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These superoxide anions are a common precursor to ROS, and also have the ability to modify/deactivate cellular proteins, inhibit electron transport, and cause premature cell death [172,173]

Subsequently, the cells were treated with H 2 O 2 or PA, and the produced formazan was measured by its absorbance at 450 nm

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Although seemingly inefficient, the pathway also produces reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide to reduce methemoglobin, glucose-6-phosphate to drive the pentose phosphate shunt to make nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate to reduce glutathione and protect against oxidation of hemoglobin, cytoskeletal protein, and membrane lipids, as well as the Rapoport-Luebering shunt to generate 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG