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In parallel, the resulting supernatant (5 volumes) was treated with 40% PEG stock solution (1 volume) on ice for 2 h or 4 C overnight

Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 51 : 3037

Absorption differences: injection vs topical Subcutaneous injection absorption: Rapid absorption into bloodstream Peak plasma concentration: 15-30 minutes 80-90% bioavailability Reaches target tissues quickly Systemic distribution Topical application absorption: Slower penetration through skin barrier Peak tissue concentration: 1-3 hours 5-15% bioavailability (most doesn't penetrate) Primarily local effects (skin where applied) Minimal systemic exposure Absorption comparison table: Why injection more effective: Direct systemic delivery Reaches all tissues Predictable dosing Lower total dose needed Better for body-wide effects When topical makes sense: Face/neck cosmetic use only Avoiding injections Already using skincare routine Combining both approaches (injection + topical) See our GHK-Cu 50mg copper peptide dosage guide for injection protocols

Clinical translation: from mitochondrial metabolic mechanisms to precision therapeutic pathways Advances in understanding mitochondrial metabolic reprogramming in CRC are accelerating its translation into clinical practice